Coast KZN

State of the Coast: KZN
State of the Coast: KZN

State of the Coast: KwaZulu-Natal Chapter 1: Introduction & Background Chapter 2: Overarching Drivers Chapter 3: Climate Variability
Chapter 4: Coastal Environment Chapter 5: Estuarine Environment Chapter 6: Marine Environment Chapter 7: Human Environment Chapter 8: Economic Environment
Chapter 9: Governance Environment Chapter 10: Conclusions
The Profile of the KZN Coast
The Profile of the KZN Coast

Ugu Lwethu- Our Coast Defining the Coastal Zone The Physical and Coastal Environment Coastal and Marine Ecosystems
Coastal and Marine Species Migrations The Human Dimension Socio-Economic Uses of the Coast Commercial Resource Uses
Pressures and Threats Management of the Coastal and Marine Environments Understanding our Coast
Coastal access
Coastal access

Access RoutesBoat Launch SitesThe Human DimensionCoastal Access: Stats & Facts
Estuaries
Estuaries

What is an Estuary? Know your Estuaries Estuary Health and Conservation KZN Estuary Observer Programme
Historical Time Series Estuary Mouth Status Sand Mining
Recreation
Recreation

Fish TaggingAccess RoutesBlue Flag Beaches
Coastal risk and vulnerability
Coastal risk and vulnerability

Coastal Risk LinesExtreme EventsCoastal ErosionKZN Coastal Vulnerability IndexPollution
Coastal issues
Coastal issues

PollutionSand MiningCoastal ErosionNurdlesUPL Chemical Spill
Estuaries

KZN Estuary Observer Programme

KZN estuaries are exposed to a range of pressures that compromise estuarine condition, often exacerbated by poor compliance monitoring and enforcement. Common and widespread offences include illegal breaching, sand mining, poaching, pollution spills, sewage spills, habitat destruction and riparian vegetation removal. These activities and system responses are also in the context of limited integrated planning and poor allocation of available resources. The 2018 National Biodiversity Assessment (Van Niekerk et al., 2019) highlights the trajectory of degradation of the KZN estuary resource.

A lack of baseline biophysical data for many estuaries makes it difficult to fully assess the impact of these transgressions, particularly where the impacts are indirect e.g., sandmining upstream starving an estuary of sediment, or wastewater significantly altering mean annual runoff entering an estuary. The KZN Estuary Observer Programme (EOP) was initiated by the Oceanographic Research Institute (ORI) through the KZN Department of Economic Development, Tourism and Environmental Affairs (EDTEA) to provide this much needed background knowledge. It is intended to support conservation planning, protect biodiversity and estuarine ecosystem function and the sustainable use of the critical resources that are unique to estuarine habitats, as envisioned in the Draft National Estuarine Management Protocol (of the Integrated Coastal Management Act, No 24 of 2008).

The programme focuses on anthropogenic activities that impact these ecosystems and their ability to continue to provide critical ecosystem services. Data is presented in a user-friendly ‘toolkit’ format to provide support to policy makers, planners, decision-makers, and estuary managers. It is only a stopgap to important estuarine monitoring that is needed going forward. Monitoring is a critical inclusion for future provincial plans if KZN estuaries are to be managed sustainably and continue to deliver ecosystem goods and services, be able to reach national and local estuary conservation targets, and mitigate against the projected socio-ecological consequences of climate change.

Method

The methods decribed here are those employed in the EOP, as presented in the Synopsis Report. This Report is structured according to the estuaries located in each of the five district municipalities in KZN and are presented in a factsheet format.


Information and data were collated for 69 KZN estuaries. Those that have World Heritage protection (iSimangaliso Wetland Park) or under South African Ports jurisdiction were excluded from this assessment (namely Factsheet numbers 1-4; 6-7; and 23). Each page notes the location and basic facts (including estuary type, length, area etc.), depicts the Estuarine Functional Zone (EFZ) and the reaches (U-Upper, M-Middle, L-Lower) and gives current summer season ranges of salinity, dissolved oxygen, turbidity and nutrient status (which is a consolidated evaluation of nitrate, and phosphate elements and primary productivity). Physical aspects of estuary depth and the sediment type of each reach is denoted from grain size distributional analysis. The mouth condition is an assessment of the average monthly state based on records from the 1980s to present, from site visits and aerial surveys conducted variously by Begg (1984), Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife (EKZNW) and ORI.


The state of KZN estuaries is evaluated by the South African Estuarine Health Index (EHI) which assesses biophysical components relative to specific pressures (Van Niekerk et al. 2013). Estuary health is a measure of the difference in the state of a system between natural (or reference) and present-day conditions. The EHI is used variously in the determination of environmental flows, in planning frameworks for development, conservation planning and protection, to inform land-use planning and in the National Biodiversity Assessment.


Estuaries are classified on a scale ranging from A – Natural to F – Extremely Degraded, using available information on hydrology, hydrodynamics, mouth condition, water chemistry, sediment processes, microalgae, macrophytes, invertebrates, fish, and birds.

The trajectory of the present health score is denoted for every estuary. This is based on the recent estuary visits and an updated assessment of the latest NBA (Van Niekerk et al. 2019). The trajectories are either stable or declining. No estuaries were noted as improving in state. The important habitats and features sections note communities and species that are important to protect (if given an IUCN threat status), are notable for estuarine function, or indicate connectivity with adjacent realms (freshwaters or the marine environment). Estuarine uses are denoted as they link to pressures and the suggested management actions. Pressures and threats are linked to the suggested management responses and primary interventions. Notably, is the Estuarine Management Plan (EMP) and Ecological Water Requirement (EWR) status of each estuary. These are brought together in a dedicated section of ‘Summary of Management Actions’ which is to be used as a roadmap for the critical management focus points for KZN estuaries.


References Begg, G. (1984). Estuaries of Natal Part 2. Supplement to NTRP Report Vol. 41. Natal Town and Regional Planning Main Series Report, Volume 55.


Van Niekerk, L., Adams, J., Bate, G., Forbes, A., Forbes, N., Huizinga, P., Lamberth, S., MacKay, C., Petersen, C., Taljaard, S. & Weerts, S. (2013). Country-wide assessment of estuary health: An approach for integrated pressures and ecosystem response in a data limited environment. Estuarine Coastal and Shelf Science. 130. 239-251. 10.1016/j.ecss.2013.05.006.


Van Niekerk, L., Adams, J., Lamberth, S., MacKay, C., Taljaard, S., Turpie, J., Weerts, S., & Raimondo, D. (2019). South African National Biodiversity Assessment 2018: Technical Report. Volume 3: Estuarine Realm. CSIR report number CSIR/SPLA/EM/EXP/2019/0062/A. South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria. Report Number: SANBI/NAT/NBA2018/2019/Vol3/A.

Estuary fact sheets

5. iNhlabane
  • Present Health Score: E
  • Trajectory: Stable
  • Management response and primary intervention/s
  • 1. Requires EMP
  • 2. Undertake EWR determination (DWS)
  • 3. Removal of reservoir barrage separating upper estuary and southern lake basin to restore estuarine hydrodynamics, estuarine lake function, and connectivity for estuary fauna movement
  • 4. Interim measure is to restore the fish ladder functionality
  • 5. CME of fishing and poaching
  • 6. Climate adaption: align with estuary SLR and runoff models, land-use development plans and coastal management lines
5. iNhlabane
8. uMlalazi
  • Present Health Score: B
  • Trajectory: Declining
  • Management response and primary intervention/s
  • 1. Requires EMP development
  • 2. Undertake EWR determination (DWS). Rapid assessment in 2015
  • 3. Agricultural retreat to restore wetland function and connectivity
  • 4. CME of fishing and poaching
  • 5. Climate adaption: align with estuary SLR and runoff models, land-use development plans and coastal management lines
8. uMlalazi
9. iSiyaya
  • Present Health Score: E
  • Trajectory: Declining
  • Management response and primary intervention/s
  • 1. Requires EMP development
  • 2. Undertake EWR determination (DWS). Rapid assessment in 2006
  • 3. Increase freshwater flow to improve water quality and limit Phragmites australis expansion. Improve water quality to limit macrophyte proliferation (including invasive species)
  • 4. Signage for public education and awareness of the effects of alien species
  • 5. Climate adaption: align with estuary SLR and runoff models, land-use development plans and coastal management lines
9. iSiyaya
10. aMatigulu-iNyoni
  • Present Health Score: B
  • Trajectory: Stable
  • Management response and primary intervention/s
  • 1. Requires EMP development
  • 2. Undertake EWR determination (DWS). Rapid assessment in 2015
  • 3. Invasive alien species monitoring and management plan
  • 4. CME of fishing, poaching, and visitor activities
  • 5. Climate adaption: align with estuary SLR and runoff models, land-use development plans and coastal management lines
10. aMatigulu-iNyoni
11. uThukela
  • Present Health Score: D
  • Trajectory: Declining
  • Management response and primary intervention/s
  • 1. Requires EMP development
  • 2. Intermediate EWR determination (DWS) 2004. Water resource class determination and associated resource quality objectives in 2021
  • 3. Implement flow management to include river-dependent marine system
  • 4. Restore buffer zone habitat within 20m of estuary to minimise flooding and improve estuary function
  • 5. CME of wastewater disposal, fishing, poaching and sand mining
  • 6. Climate adaption: align with estuary SLR and runoff models, land-use development plans and coastal management lines
11. uThukela
12. iZinkwazi
  • Present Health Score: B/C
  • Trajectory: Declining
  • Management response and primary intervention/s
  • 1. EMP in development (KZN EDTEA), include MMP
  • 2. Undertake EWR determination (DWS). Desktop assessment in 2013
  • 3. Restore buffer zone habitat within 20 m of estuary to protect water quality and enhance overall estuarine productivity
  • 4. CME of fishing and poaching
  • 5. Signage for public education and awareness of the effects of alien species
  • 6. Climate adaption: align with estuary SLR and runoff models, land-use development plans and coastal management lines
12. iZinkwazi
13. iNonoti
  • Present Health Score: C
  • Trajectory: Declining
  • Management response and primary intervention/s
  • 1. Requires EMP development
  • 2. Undertake EWR determination (DWS). Desktop assessment in 2013
  • 3. Avoid new wastewater disposal to the iNonoti River and Estuary
  • 4. Improve wastewater treatment
  • 5. Restore buffer zone habitat within 20 m of estuary to improve water quality and enhance overall estuarine productivity
  • 6. CME of fishing and poaching
  • 7. Climate adaption: align with estuary SLR and runoff models, land-use development plans and coastal management lines
13. iNonoti
14. uMdlotane
  • Present Health Score: B
  • Trajectory: Declining
  • Management response and primary intervention/s
  • 1. Requires EMP development
  • 2. Undertake EWR determination (DWS). Desktop assessment in 2013
  • 3. Restore buffer zone habitat within 20 m of the EFZ to improve water quality and enhance overall estuarine productivity
  • 4. Manage retreat of low-lying development
  • 5. CME of poaching
  • 6. Climate adaption: align with estuary SLR and runoff models, land-use development plans and coastal management lines
14. uMdlotane
15. uMvoti
  • Present Health Score: D
  • Trajectory: Declining
  • Management response and primary intervention/s
  • 1. Requires EMP development
  • 2. Comprehensive EWR determination (DWS) 2014.
  • 3. Restore buffer zone habitat within 20 m of the EFZ to improve water quality and enhance overall estuarine productivity
  • 4. CME of upstream wastewater discharge standards, sand mining, fishing and poaching
  • 5. CME of minimum standards for upstream industrial and domestic wastewater disposal, and sand mining
  • 6. Climate adaption: align with estuary SLR and runoff models, land-use development plans and coastal management lines
15. uMvoti
16. uSetheni
  • Present Health Score: B/C
  • Trajectory: Stable
  • Management response and primary intervention/s
  • 1. Requires EMP development
  • 2. Undertake EWR determination (DWS). Desktop assessment in 2013
  • 3. Restore buffer zone habitat within 20 m of the EFZ to protect water quality, improve habitat diversity and enhance overall estuarine productivity
  • 4. CME of fishing
  • 5. Climate adaption: align with estuary SLR and runoff models, land-use
16. uSetheni
17. Bobs Stream
  • Present Health Score: B/C
  • Trajectory: Stable
  • Management response and primary intervention/s
  • 1. Requires EMP development
  • 2. Undertake EWR determination (DWS). Desktop assessment in 2013
  • 3. Decommission earth-wall dam to improve hydrology and hydrodynamics
  • 4. Restore buffer zone habitat within 20 m of the EFZ to protect water quality, improve habitat diversity and enhance overall estuarine productivity
  • 5. CME of fishing
  • 6. Climate adaption: align with estuary SLR and runoff models, land-use development plans and coastal management lines
17. Bobs Stream
18. uMhlali
  • Present Health Score: D
  • Trajectory: Declining
  • Management response and primary intervention/s
  • 1. Requires EMP development
  • 2. Undertake EWR determination (DWS). Desktop assessment in 2013
  • 3. Restore buffer zone habitat within 20 m of the EFZ to protect water quality, improve habitat diversity and enhance overall estuarine productivity
  • 4. Modernise WWTW in the EFZ by improving nutrient removal
  • 5. CME of fishing and poaching
  • 6. Climate adaption: align with estuary SLR and runoff models, land-use development plans and coastal management lines
18. uMhlali
19. uThongathi
  • Present Health Score: D
  • Trajectory: Declining
  • Management response and primary intervention/s
  • 1. EMP in development (KZN EDTEA)
  • 2. Intermediate EWR determination (DWS) in 2007
  • 3. Restore EFZ wetlands to improve habitat quality and animal movement corridors
  • 4. Estuary CME of fishing and poaching, and sand mining
  • 5. CME of minimum standards for upstream industrial and domestic wastewater disposal, and sand mining
  • 6. Climate adaption: align with estuary SLR and runoff models, land-use development plans and coastal management lines
19. uThongathi
20. uMdloti
  • Present Health Score: D
  • Trajectory: Declining
  • Management response and primary intervention/s
  • 1. Requires EMP development, including an interim MMP
  • 2. Intermediate EWR determination (DWS) in 2007
  • 3. Implement dam operating rules to improve hydrological and hydrodynamic conditions, and improve water quality through dilution
  • 4. CME of minimum standards for wastewater disposal, fishing and poaching, and sand mining
  • 5. Signage for public education and awareness of the effects of alien species
  • 6. Climate adaption: align with estuary SLR and runoff models, land-use development plans and coastal management lines
20. uMdloti
21. uMhlanga
  • Present Health Score: D-
  • Trajectory: Declining
  • Management response and primary intervention/s
  • 1. Remediation and restoration of estuary following chemical spill impacts
  • 2. Requires EMP development, including MMP
  • 3. Undertake EWR determination (DWS). Rapid assessment in 2003
  • 4. Implement treated wastewater management plan for diversion of excess volume to uMngeni catchment
  • 5. Modernise WWTW in the EFZ by improving nutrient removal
  • 6. CME of fishing and poaching
  • 7. Signage for public education and awareness of the effects of alien species
  • 8. Climate adaption: align with estuary SLR and runoff models, land-use development plans and coastal management lines
21. uMhlanga
22. uMngeni
  • Present Health Score: E
  • Trajectory: Declining
  • Management response and primary intervention/s
  • 1. Requires EMP development
  • 2. Undertake EWR determination (DWS). Rapid assessment in 2011
  • 3. Improve storm water and WWTW infrastructure and water quality
  • 4. Solid waste management: litter boom projects and beach clean-ups
  • 5. CME of fishing and poaching
  • 6. Climate adaption: align with estuary SLR and runoff models, land-use development plans and coastal management lines
22. uMngeni
24. iSiphingo
  • Present Health Score: F
  • Trajectory: Stable
  • Management response and primary intervention/s
  • 1. Complete EMP development (eThekwini Municipality)
  • 2. Undertake EWR determination (DWS). Desktop assessment in 2013
  • 3. Develop a sustainable, long-term solution for mouth management
  • 4. Repair/upgrade sewerage infrastructure to avoid spills and eutrophication
  • 5. Repair and maintain iSiphingo River diversion works to divert only flood flows to iZimbokodo system. Will reduce flood risks and improve waste assimilation and hydrodynamics
  • 6. CME for littering and dumping
  • 7. Climate adaption: align with estuary SLR and runoff models, land-use development plans and coastal management lines
24. iSiphingo
25. iZimbokodo
  • Present Health Score: E
  • Trajectory: Stable
  • Management response and primary intervention/s
  • 1. Requires EMP development
  • 2. Undertake EWR determination (DWS). Rapid assessment in 2011
  • 3. Repair and maintain iSiphingo River diversion works intended to divert only flood waters to iZimbokodo system
  • 4. Modernise WWTW by improving nutrient removal at the Amanzimtoti and Isipingo works to improve water quality, reduce fish kills, and risks to human health
  • 5. CME of sand mining activities in the iZimbokodo River to retain sedimentary habitats and sediment delivery to the coast
  • 6. Climate adaption: align with estuary SLR and runoff models, land-use development plans and coastal management lines
25. iZimbokodo
26. aManzimtoti
  • Present Health Score: D/E
  • Trajectory: Declining
  • Management response and primary intervention/s
  • 1. Requires EMP development
  • 2. Undertake EWR determination (DWS). Desktop assessment in 2013
  • 3. Reduce nutrient pollution (stormwater and diffuse runoff) to reduce fish kills and nuisance water quality
  • 4. Remove dysfunctional mouth weir to improve hydrodynamics and facilitate a more natural mouth configuration
  • 5. Restore habitats in the middle and upper reaches to improve water quality, increase habitat diversity and overall estuarine productivity
  • 6. CME of fishing and poaching
  • 7. Climate adaption: align with estuary SLR and runoff models, land-use development plans and coastal management lines
26. aManzimtoti
27. aManzanamtoti
  • Present Health Score: E
  • Trajectory: Declining
  • Management response and primary intervention/s
  • 1. Requires EMP development
  • 2. Undertake EWR determination (DWS). Rapid assessment in 2011
  • 3. Improved wastewater treatment, by nutrient removal at the Kingsburgh WWTW to improve water quality from hypereutrophic, to reduce fish kills and nuisance water quality and risks to human health
  • 4. Restore EFZ vegetation in lower reaches, including alien terrestrial species to improve habitat diversity and overall estuarine productivity in this highly modified system
  • 5. CME of fishing and poaching
  • 6. Climate adaption: align with estuary SLR and runoff models, land-use development plans and coastal management lines
27. aManzanamtoti
28. iLovu
  • Present Health Score: C/D
  • Trajectory: Declining
  • Management response and primary intervention/s
  • 1. EMP in development (KZN EDTEA)
  • 2. Undertake EWR determination (DWS). Desktop assessment in 2013
  • 3. CME of sand mining, sediment budget to inform sand mining permitting and avoid further habitat degradation and water quality impacts
  • 4. Removal of informal causeway to re-establish connectivity at the riverestuary interface
  • 5. CME of fishing and poaching
  • 6. Climate adaption: align with estuary SLR and runoff models, land-use development plans and coastal management lines
28. iLovu
29. uMsimbazi
  • Present Health Score: B/C
  • Trajectory: Declining
  • Management response and primary intervention/s
  • 1. Requires EMP development
  • 2. Undertake EWR determination (DWS). Desktop assessment in 2013
  • 3. Land-use planning to avoid further encroachment of peri-urban development into the EFZ
  • 4. CME of fishing and poaching
  • 5. Climate adaption: align with estuary SLR and runoff models, land-use development plans and coastal management lines
29. uMsimbazi
30. uMgababa
  • Present Health Score: C
  • Trajectory: Declining
  • Management response and primary intervention/s
  • 1. Requires EMP development
  • 2. Undertake EWR determination (DWS). Desktop assessment in 2013
  • 3. Remove dam sports fields
  • 4. CME of fishing and poaching
  • 5. Climate adaption: align with estuary SLR and runoff models, land-use development plans and coastal management lines
30. uMgababa
31. iNgane
  • Present Health Score: C
  • Trajectory: Stable
  • Management response and primary intervention/s
  • 1. Requires EMP development
  • 2. Undertake EWR determination (DWS). Desktop assessment in 2013
  • 3. CME of fishing, unauthorised development
  • 4. Climate adaption: align with estuary SLR and runoff models, land-use development plans and coastal management lines
31. iNgane
32. uMkhomazi
  • Present Health Score: C
  • Trajectory: Stable
  • Management response and primary intervention/s
  • 1. Requires EMP development
  • 2. Intermediate EWR determination undertaken in 2014 (DWS)
  • 3. CME of sand mining, fishing and poaching
  • 4. Climate adaption: align with estuary SLR and runoff models, land-use development plans and coastal management lines
32. uMkhomazi
33. uMahlongwane
  • Present Health Score: C
  • Trajectory: Declining
  • Management response and primary intervention/s
  • 1. Requires EMP development
  • 2. Undertake EWR determination (DWS). Desktop assessment in 2013
  • 3. Modernise WWTW by improving nutrient removal
  • 4. CME of fishing and poaching
  • 5. Climate adaption: align with estuary SLR and runoff models, land-use development plans and coastal management lines
33. uMahlongwane
34. aMahlongwa
  • Present Health Score: C
  • Trajectory: Declining
  • Management response and primary intervention/s
  • 1. EMP in development (KZN EDTEA), include MMP
  • 2. Undertake EWR determination (DWS). Desktop assessment in 2013
  • 3. CME of sand mining and fishing
  • 4. Climate adaption: align with estuary SLR and runoff models, land-use development plans and coastal management lines
34. aMahlongwa
35. uMphambanyoni
  • Present Health Score: C
  • Trajectory: Declining
  • Management response and primary intervention/s
  • 1. EMP in development (Umdoni Municipality)
  • 2. Undertake EWR determination (DWS). Desktop assessment in 2013
  • 3. Modernise WWTW by improving nutrient removal
  • 4. CME of sand mining, fishing
  • 5. Climate adaption: align with estuary SLR and runoff models, land-use development plans and coastal management lines
35. uMphambanyoni
36. Rocky Bay
  • Present Health Score: C/D
  • Trajectory: Declining
  • Management response and primary intervention/s
  • 1. Requires EMP development
  • 2. Undertake EWR determination (DWS)
  • 3. CME of fishing
  • 4. Managed retreat of residential gardens from EFZ to re-establish natural vegetation buffer
  • 5. Climate adaption: align with estuary SLR and runoff models, land-use development plans and coastal management lines
36. Rocky Bay
37. uMzimayi
  • Present Health Score: C/D
  • Trajectory: Declining
  • Management response and primary intervention/s
  • 1. Requires EMP development
  • 2. Undertake EWR determination (DWS) Desktop assessment in 2013
  • 3. CME of sand mining and fishing
  • 4. Climate adaption: align with estuary SLR and runoff models, land-use development plans and coastal management lines
37. uMzimayi
38. uMuziwezinto Estuary
  • Present Health Score: C/D
  • Trajectory: Declining
  • Management response and primary intervention/s
  • 1. EMP in development (Umdoni Municipality)
  • 2. Undertake EWR determination (DWS). Desktop assessment in 2013
  • 3. Remove remnant sea wall to improve mouth dynamics
  • 4. CME of fishing and poaching
  • 5. Climate adaption: align with estuary SLR and runoff models, land-use development plans and coastal management lines
38. uMuziwezinto Estuary
39. iNkomba Estuary
  • Present Health Score: C
  • Trajectory: Declining
  • Management response and primary intervention/s
  • 1. EMP in development
  • 2. Undertake EWR determination (DWS). Desktop assessment in 2013
  • 3. Remove remnant sea wall to improve mouth dynamics
  • 4. CME of wastewater disposal
  • 5. Climate adaption: align with estuary SLR and runoff models, land-use development plans and coastal management lines
39. iNkomba Estuary
40. uMkhumbane Estuary
  • Present Health Score: C
  • Trajectory: Stable
  • Management response and primary intervention/s
  • 1. EMP in development
  • 2. Undertake EWR determination (DWS). Desktop assessment in 2013
  • 3. Remove remnant sea wall to improve mouth dynamics
  • 4. CME of fishing
  • 5. Climate adaption: align with estuary SLR and runoff models, land-use development plans and coastal management lines
40. uMkhumbane Estuary
41. iSezela Estuary
  • Present Health Score: C
  • Trajectory: Declining
  • Management response and primary intervention/s
  • 1. EMP in development
  • 2. Undertake EWR determination (DWS). Desktop assessment in 2013
  • 3. CME of standards for wastewater disposal and fishing
  • 4. Climate adaption: align with estuary SLR and runoff models, land-use development plans and coastal management lines
41. iSezela Estuary
42. uMdesingane Estuary
  • Present Health Score: D
  • Trajectory: Declining
  • Management response and primary intervention/s
  • 1. EMP in development
  • 2. Undertake EWR determination (DWS). Desktop assessment in 2013
  • 3. Recommend removal of weir to restore natural estuarine area and function
  • 4. CME of fishing
  • 5. Climate adaption: align with estuary SLR and runoff models, land-use development plans and coastal management lines
42. uMdesingane Estuary
43. iFafa Estuary
  • Present Health Score: C/D
  • Trajectory: Declining
  • Management response and primary intervention/s
  • 1. EMP in development (Umdoni Municipality)
  • 2. Undertake EWR determination (DWS). Desktop assessment in 2013
  • 3. Managed retreat of holiday amenities from channel edge
  • 4. CME of sand mining and fishing
  • 5. Climate adaption: align with estuary SLR and runoff models, land-use development plans and coastal management lines
43. iFafa Estuary
44. uMvuzi Estuary
  • Present Health Score: C
  • Trajectory: Stable
  • Management response and primary intervention/s
  • 1. Reguires EMP
  • 2. Undertake EWR determination (DWS). Desktop assessment in 2013
  • 3. CME of fishing
  • 4. Climate adaption: align with estuary SLR and runoff models, land-use development plans and coastal management lines
44. uMvuzi Estuary
45. uMthwalume Estuary
  • Present Health Score: C
  • Trajectory: Declining
  • Management response and primary intervention/s
  • 1. EMP in development (Umdoni Municipality)
  • 2. Undertake EWR determination (DWS). Desktop assessment in 2013
  • 3. Remove informal road crossing at head to restore connectivity and flow
  • 4. CME of sand mining and fishing
  • 5. Climate adaption: align with estuary SLR and runoff models, land-use development plans and coastal management lines
45. uMthwalume Estuary
46. uMnamfu Estuary
  • Present Health Score: C
  • Trajectory: Stable
  • Management response and primary intervention/s
  • 1. Requires EMP development
  • 2. Undertake EWR determination (DWS). Desktop assessment in 2013
  • 3. CME of fishing
  • 4. Climate adaption: align with estuary SLR and runoff models, land-use development plans and coastal management lines
46. uMnamfu Estuary
47. uMakhosi Estuary
  • Present Health Score: B/C
  • Trajectory: Stable
  • Management response and primary intervention/s
  • 1. Requires EMP development
  • 2. Undertake EWR determination (DWS). Desktop assessment in 2013
  • 3. CME of fishing
  • 4. Climate adaption: align with estuary SLR and runoff models, land-use development plans and coastal management lines
47. uMakhosi Estuary
48. uMfazezala Estuary
  • Present Health Score: C
  • Trajectory: Stable
  • Management response and primary intervention/s
  • 1. Requires EMP development
  • 2. Undertake EWR determination (DWS). Desktop assessment in 2013
  • 3. CME of fishing
  • 4. Climate adaption: align with estuary SLR and runoff models, land-use development plans and coastal management lines
48. uMfazezala Estuary
49. uMhlungwa Estuary
  • Present Health Score: C
  • Trajectory: Stable
  • Management response and primary intervention/s
  • 1. Requires EMP development
  • 2. Undertake EWR determination (DWS). Desktop assessment in 2013
  • 3. Managed retreat of residential gardens
  • 4. CME of fishing
  • 5. Climate adaption: align with estuary SLR and runoff models, land-use development plans and coastal management lines
49. uMhlungwa Estuary
50. uMhlabashana Estuary
  • Present Health Score: B/C
  • Trajectory: Declining
  • Management response and primary intervention/s
  • 1. Requires EMP development
  • 2. Undertake EWR determination (DWS). Desktop assessment in 2013
  • 3. CME of habitat clearing, fishing and sand mining
  • 4. Implement phased retreat for low-lying development
  • 5. Climate adaption: align with estuary SLR and runoff models, land-use development plans and coastal management lines
50. uMhlabashana Estuary
51. uMzumbe Estuary
  • Present Health Score: C/D
  • Trajectory: Declining
  • Management response and primary intervention/s
  • 1. Requires EMP development
  • 2. Undertake EWR determination (DWS). Desktop assessment in 2013
  • 3. Restore wetlands in EFZ to improve estuarine habitat diversity and overall status, particularly in lower reaches adjacent to coastal grassland
  • 4. Implement phased retreat of commercial agriculture
  • 5. CME of sand mining and fishing
  • 6. Climate adaption: align with estuary SLR and runoff models, land-use development plans and coastal management lines
51. uMzumbe Estuary
52. iNjambili Estuary
  • Present Health Score: C
  • Trajectory: Declining
  • Management response and primary intervention/s
  • 1. Requires EMP development
  • 2. Undertake EWR determination (DWS). Desktop assessment in 2013
  • 3. CME of freshwater abstraction (farm dam)
  • 4. Restore wetlands within EFZ to improve water quality
  • 5. Climate adaption: align with estuary SLR and runoff models, land-use development plans and coastal management lines
52. iNjambili Estuary
53. iKhoshwana Estuary
  • Present Health Score: C/D
  • Trajectory: Declining
  • Management response and primary intervention/s
  • 1. Requires EMP development
  • 2. Undertake EWR determination (DWS). Desktop assessment in 2013
  • 3. CME of standards for wastewater disposal, and fishing
  • 4. Implement managed retreat of low-lying development
  • 5. Climate adaption: align with estuary SLR and runoff models, land-use development plans and coastal management lines
53. iKhoshwana Estuary
54. iDombe Estuary
  • Present Health Score: D
  • Trajectory: Declining
  • Management response and primary intervention/s
  • 1. Requires EMP development
  • 2. Undertake EWR determination (DWS). Desktop assessment in 2013
  • 3. CME of effluent discharges and fishing
  • 4. Implement managed retreat of low-lying developments on the north bank
  • 5. Climate adaption: align with estuary SLR and runoff models, land-use development plans and coastal management lines
54. iDombe Estuary
55. uMhlangomkhulu North Estuary
  • Present Health Score: C
  • Trajectory: Stable
  • Management response and primary intervention/s
  • 1. EMP in development (Ray Nkonyeni Municipality)
  • 2. Undertake EWR determination (DWS). Desktop assessment in 2013
  • 3. Implement managed retreat of low-lying development
  • 4. Prohibit use of herbicide sprays in riparian areas
  • 5. Climate adaption: align with estuary SLR and runoff models, land-use development plans and coastal management lines
55. uMhlangomkhulu North Estuary
56. uMthente Estuary
  • Present Health Score: C
  • Trajectory: Stable
  • Management response and primary intervention/s
  • 1. EMP in development (Ray Nkonyeni Municipality), include MMP
  • 2. Undertake EWR determination (DWS). Desktop assessment in 2013
  • 3. Restore habitat on the north bank of the middle reaches to enhance habitat diversity and protect water quality
  • 4. Climate adaption: align with estuary SLR and runoff models, land-use development plans and coastal management l
56. uMthente Estuary
57. uMzimkhulu Estuary
  • Present Health Score: B
  • Trajectory: Declining
  • Management response and primary intervention/s
  • 1. EMP in development (Ray Nkonyeni Municipality), include MMP
  • 2. UEWR intermediate determination (DWS) in 2011
  • 3. CME of sand mining and fishing
  • 4. Restore buffer zone habitat within 20 m of estuary to protect water quality and protect estuarine productivity, particularly fish stocks
  • 5. Prevent artificial breaching to protect overall estuarine productivity
  • 6. Climate adaption: align with estuary SLR and runoff models, land-use development plans and coastal management lines
57. uMzimkhulu Estuary
58. uMbango Estuary
  • Present Health Score: E
  • Trajectory: Declining
  • Management response and primary intervention/s
  • 1. EMP in development (Ray Nkonyeni Municipality)
  • 2. Undertake EWR determination (DWS). Desktop assessment in 2013
  • 3. Repair and upgrade sewerage infrastructure to prevent frequent spills
  • 4. CME of standards for wastewater disposal
  • 5. Climate adaption: align with estuary SLR and runoff models, land-use development plans and coastal management lines
58. uMbango Estuary
59. iBhobhoyi Estuary
  • Present Health Score: B/C
  • Trajectory: Declining
  • Management response and primary intervention/s
  • 1. Requires EMP development
  • 2. Undertake EWR determination (DWS). Desktop assessment in 2013
  • 3. Repair and upgrade sewerage infrastructure to prevent frequent spills
  • 4. CME of standards for wastewater disposal
  • 5. Climate adaption: align with estuary SLR and runoff models, land-use development plans and coastal management lines
59. iBhobhoyi Estuary
60. iZotsha Estuary
  • Present Health Score: B/C
  • Trajectory: Declining
  • Management response and primary intervention/s
  • 1. Requires EMP development, including MMP
  • 2. Undertake EWR determination (DWS). Rapid assessment in 2011
  • 3. Investigate sandbag weir in middle reaches, for removal
  • 4. Remove private property boundary fences from estuary channel
  • 5. CME of abstraction, fishing and sand mining
  • 6. Climate adaption: align with estuary SLR and runoff models, land-use development plans and coastal management lines
60. iZotsha Estuary
61. oHlangeni Estuary
  • Present Health Score: C
  • Trajectory: Declining
  • Management response and primary intervention/s
  • 1. EMP in development (Ray Nkonyeni Municipality), include MMP
  • 2. Undertake EWR determination (DWS). Desktop assessment in 2013
  • 3. CME of standards for wastewater disposal, fishing and sand mining
  • 4. Climate adaption: align with estuary SLR and runoff models, land-use development plans and coastal management lines
61. oHlangeni Estuary
62. uVunguza Estuary
  • Present Health Score: B
  • Trajectory: Declining
  • Management response and primary intervention/s
  • 1. Requires EMP development
  • 2. Undertake EWR determination (DWS). Desktop assessment in 2013
  • 3. Repair and upgrade sewerage infrastructure to prevent frequent spills
  • 4. Modernise WWTW in the EFZ by improving nutrient removal
  • 5. CME of standards for wastewater disposal, and rock and sand mining
  • 6. Climate adaption: align with estuary SLR and runoff models, land-use development plans and coastal management lines
62. uVunguza Estuary
63. iKongeni Estuary
  • Present Health Score: D/E
  • Trajectory: Declining
  • Management response and primary intervention/s
  • 1. EMP in development (KZN EDTEA), requires updated MMP
  • 2. Undertake EWR determination (DWS). Desktop assessment in 2013
  • 3. Repair and upgrade local sewerage infrastructure to avoid spills
  • 4. Modernise WWTW by improving nutrient removal
  • 5. CME of standards for wastewater disposal, and fishing
  • 6. Implement managed retreat of low-lying development
  • 7. Climate adaption: align with estuary SLR and runoff models, land-use development plans and coastal management lines
63. iKongeni Estuary
64. uVuzana Estuary
  • Present Health Score: C
  • Trajectory: Stable
  • Management response and primary intervention/s
  • 1. Requires EMP development
  • 2. Undertake EWR determination (DWS). Desktop assessment in 2013
  • 3. Remove private property boundary fences from estuary channel
  • 4. Climate adaption: align with estuary SLR and runoff models, land-use development plans and coastal management lines
64. uVuzana Estuary
65. iBilanhlonhlo Estuary
  • Present Health Score: C
  • Trajectory: Declining
  • Management response and primary intervention/s
  • 1. EMP in development (Ray Nkonyeni Municipality), include MMP
  • 2. Undertake EWR determination (DWS). Desktop assessment in 2013
  • 3. Managed retreat of low-lying development
  • 4. CME of sand mining
  • 5. Climate adaption: align with estuary SLR and runoff models, land-use development plans and coastal management lines
65. iBilanhlonhlo Estuary
66. iMvutshini Estuary
  • Present Health Score: B/C
  • Trajectory: Stable
  • Management response and primary intervention/s
  • 1. Requires EMP development
  • 2. Undertake EWR determination (DWS). Desktop assessment in 2013
  • 3. Modernise WWTW in the EFZ by improving nutrient removal
  • 4. CME of standards for wastewater disposal
  • 5. Climate adaption: align with estuary SLR and runoff models, land-use development plans and coastal management lines
66. iMvutshini Estuary
67. iMbizana Estuary
  • Present Health Score: B/C
  • Trajectory: Stable
  • Management response and primary intervention/s
  • 1. Requires EMP development, including MMP
  • 2. Undertake EWR determination (DWS). Desktop assessment in 2013
  • 3. Restore habitat in the middle and upper reaches to improve conservation value
  • 4. CME of abstraction, fishing and sand mining
  • 5. Climate adaption: align with estuary SLR and runoff models, land-use development plans and coastal management lines
67. iMbizana Estuary
68. iKhaba Estuary
  • Present Health Score: C
  • Trajectory: Declining
  • Management response and primary intervention/s
  • 1. Requires EMP development
  • 2. Undertake EWR determination (DWS). Desktop assessment in 2013
  • 3. Modernise WWTW in the EFZ by improving nutrient removal to improve water quality
  • 4. CME of standards for wastewater disposal
  • 5. Climate adaption: align with estuary SLR and runoff models, land-use development plans and coastal management lines
68. iKhaba Estuary
69. uMhlangomkhulu South Estuary
  • Present Health Score: C
  • Trajectory: Stable
  • Management response and primary intervention/s
  • 1. Requires EMP development
  • 2. Undertake EWR determination (DWS). Desktop assessment in 2013
  • 3. Climate adaption: align with estuary SLR and runoff models, land-use development plans and coastal management lines
69. uMhlangomkhulu South Estuary
70. iMpenjani Estuary
  • Present Health Score: B/C
  • Trajectory: Declining
  • Management response and primary intervention/s
  • 1. EMP in development (EKZNW)
  • 2. Undertake EWR determination (DWS). Desktop assessment in 2013
  • 3. CME of standards for wastewater disposal, and fishing and sand mining
  • 4. Signage for public education and awareness of the effects of alien species
  • 5. Climate adaption: align with estuary SLR and runoff models, land-use development plans and coastal management lines
70. iMpenjani Estuary
71. iKhandalendlovu Estuary
  • Present Health Score: B
  • Trajectory: Stable
  • Management response and primary intervention/s
  • 1. Requires EMP development, including MMP
  • 2. Undertake EWR determination (DWS). Desktop assessment in 2013
  • 3. Climate adaption: align with estuary SLR and runoff models, land-use development plans and coastal management lines
71. iKhandalendlovu Estuary
72. uMuntongazi Estuary
  • Present Health Score: B/C
  • Trajectory: Stable
  • Management response and primary intervention/s
  • 1. EMP developed (Ray Nkonyeni Municipality)
  • 2. Undertake EWR determination (DWS). Desktop assessment in 2013
  • 3. Remove private property boundary fences from estuary channel
  • 4. Modernise WWTW in the EFZ by improving nutrient removal
  • 5. CME of standards for wastewater disposal
  • 6. Climate adaption: align with estuary SLR and runoff models, land-use development plans and coastal management lines
72. uMuntongazi Estuary
73. uMbhoyibhoyi Estuary
  • Present Health Score: B
  • Trajectory: Stable
  • Management response and primary intervention/s
  • 1. Requires EMP development
  • 2. Undertake EWR determination (DWS). Desktop assessment in 2013
  • 3. Climate adaption: align with estuary SLR and runoff models, land-use development plans and coastal management lines
73. uMbhoyibhoyi Estuary
74. iSandlu Estuary
  • Present Health Score: C
  • Trajectory: Stable
  • Management response and primary intervention/s
  • 1. Requires EMP development
  • 2. Undertake EWR determination (DWS). Desktop assessment in 2013
  • 3. CME of freshwater abstraction, alteration of bed and banks
  • 4. Climate adaption: align with estuary SLR and runoff models, land-use development plans and coastal management lines
74. iSandlu Estuary
75. iSolwane Estuary
  • Present Health Score: B
  • Trajectory: Stable
  • Management response and primary intervention/s
  • 1. Requires EMP development
  • 2. Undertake EWR determination (DWS). Desktop assessment in 2013
  • 3. As the least developed estuary along the KZN coast, specific conservation measures should be considered for the protection of this estuary and its catchment
  • 4. Climate adaption: align with estuary SLR and runoff models, land-use development plans and coastal management lines
75. iSolwane Estuary
76. uMthavuna Estuary
  • Present Health Score: B
  • Trajectory: Stable
  • Management response and primary intervention/s
  • 1. Requires EMP development (consult with Eastern Cape DEDEAT)
  • 2. Undertake EWR determination (DWS). Desktop assessment in 2013
  • 3. As an important nursery habitat in good condition, specific conservation measures should be considered for the protection of this estuary
  • 4. CME of fishing
  • 5. Climate adaption: align with estuary SLR and runoff models, land-use development plans and coastal management lines
76. uMthavuna Estuary
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Citation







MacKay CF, McKelvey B (2022). KZN Estuary Observer Programme: Summary of conditions, pressures and recommended management actions for KZN estuaries. Report prepared for the KwaZulu-Natal Department of Economic Development, Tourism and Environmental Affairs. Unpublished Report No. 364 Oceanographic Research Institute, Durban: 152 pp.